(12th century stone carving of Pythagoras, from Chartres Cathedral)
In the distant records of human achievement, what we know today as religion, magic and science merge and mingle together, so that it is scarcely possible to separate them. This is the case with the most famous of Greek sages, Pythagoras, who was equal parts a magician, a mathematician, a philosopher and a divinely-inspired visionary. He left no written works, but his oral teachings, preserved in the writings of members of his school, exerted a profound influence on later Greek thinkers such as Aristotle and Plato. He may be regarded as the father of such far-ranging disciplines as numerology, geometry, musical theory and psychotherapy, but in the ancient world he was known chiefly as a magus of great wisdom and power.
Fragments of Pythagorean wisdom lie scattered throughout the mystical writings of Christian scholars over a span of two thousand years. His number theories shaped much of that part of the practical Kabbalah of the Jews that deals with the mystical meaning and magical use of numbers, and Pythagorean numerology is also frequently encountered in the ritual magic of the Renaissance. Pythagoras is best known today for his tetractys and his Golden Verses, both of which are treated separately on this Web site. However, little is generally known about the life of this legendary figure, who was regarded by the ancient Greeks as nothing less than a god.
Pythagoras was born during the 6th century BC and grew up on Samos, a small island in the Aegean Sea. His father, Mnesarchus, was a gem engraver and sea trader. His mother's name was originally Parthenis, but after the birth of Pythagoras her husband changed her name to Pythais, in honor of the god Apollo Pythia, the Apollo of oracular wisdom. Pythian Apollo presided over the ancient oracle at Delphi, the most famous oracle in the ancient world.
Iamblichus, who wrote the best known early biography of Pythagoras, relates that while Mnesarchus was away from home on a business trip, he stopped by the oracle at Delphi to inquire about his planned forthcoming trade expedition to Syria. The Pythoness informed him that not only would his voyage be a complete success, but that his wife was pregnant with a son "who would surpass all others who had ever lived in beauty and wisdom." This was the first Mnesarchus had heard of the pregnancy. But it proved to be true. Iamblichus states that Pythagoras was born at Sidon in Phoenicia.
The myth grew up that the actual father of the child was Apollo himself. Greek gods were renowned for impregnating mortal women and engendering upon them great heroes. Apollo, however, was a god of wisdom, and he produced a sage rather than a warrior.
Having divine foreknowledge of the potential of his son, Mnesarchus took care to provide Pythagoras with the best possible education. This was facilitated by the wealth he had accumulated on his successful trade mission -- in those times, a single trade expedition to a distant land could either make a man's fortune, or ruin him forever. He also caused a rich temple in honor of Pythian Apollo to be built on Samos.
Pythagoras was tutored under Creophilus and Pherecydes the Syrian. His early education focused chiefly on divine matters -- the histories and natures of the gods, and the modes of their proper worship. While still a youth, his growing reputation attracted the attention of such great philosophers as Thales of Miletus and Bias of Priene. Iamblichus reports that old men reverenced Pythagoras and flocked to hear the boy speak.
Mnesarchus died when Pythagoras was still a youth, and his son inherited his father's considerable estate. He was thus not only extraordinarily intelligent and handsome, but wealthy as well. Those who knew him took to calling the teenager the "long-haired Samian" which suggests that Pythagoras has shoulder-length, flowing blond hair -- blond, because Apollo is a solar deity. He was truly a golden child in every respect.
When Pythagoras was 18, a dictator named Polycrates came to power on Samos, and Pythagoras prudently departed from the island to avoid the ensuing repression of free thought and free speech. He eventually found his way to Thales at Miletus and spent some time studying under this sage.
At this early stage in Greek history, there was no such thing as a philosopher, because the word did not yet exist. Some teachers had taken to calling themselves sophos, meaning wise, but Pythagoras is claimed to be the first Greek who called himself philosophos, a lover of wisdom.
Thales was very old when Pythagoras reached him, and suffering from physical infirmities. He had soon taught the golden-haired youth all he could teach, and counseled Pythagoras to travel to Egypt to apprentice himself under the priests of Memphis. No class was more renowned in ancient times for their knowledge of divinity and magic than the Egyptian priesthood.
Pythagoras traveled to Phoenicia, where he gained admission into the Mysteries at Byblos and Tyre. His desire to experience everything to do with the gods was insatiable. He lived in solitude in a temple on top of Mount Carmel, and spent his days meditating about sacred matters. One day, an Egyptian ship arrived near the mountain, and Pythagoras descended to ask the captain if he would allow Pythagoras to return with him back to Egypt. The captain readily agreed, intending to sell this attractive and innocent Greek teenager into slavery at the first opportunity, but during the voyage Pythagoras sat on the deck in one place, for two nights and three days not sleeping, not eating, not drinking even water. The ship made remarkably good speed to Egypt without a hint of foul weather or other mishaps.
Both the behavior of Pythagoras and the good fortune on the return voyage convinced the Egyptian seamen that they had some sort of semi-divine being on their deck. They abandoned their plan to sell Pythagoras. Being more than a little afraid of offending him, they landed on the Egyptian coast, raised an altar, and made a sacrifice of fresh fruit to the Greek, then departed in haste and left Pythagoras to his own devices.
By the account of Iamblichus, Pythagoras remained 22 years in Egypt studying under the priests and seeking out the sages and magicians of that ancient land. The main focus of his attention was astronomy and geometry. He might have remained longer, but was taken captive by the invading soldiers of Cambyses and carried off to Babylon. Here he remained 12 years studying arithmetic and music, as well as the divine arts, under the Magi. Iamblichus does not reveal how Pythagoras went from captive slave to disciple of the Persian Magi, but presumably his talents and beauty impressed his captors enough for them to grant him freedom.
Around age 56 he returned to Samos to teach the wisdom of the Egyptians -- specifically, the mystical aspect of geometry and numbers. However, Iamblichus reveals that the natives of Samos were not ready to receive this wisdom, which was unlike anything else taught in Greece at the time. It was too deep and difficult for them. Before long he was avoided by his fellow countrymen, and left in solitude, proving the adage of a later sage, that a prophet is not without honor, except in his own country, and among his own people. He attracted one student.
Leaving with his sole disciple, he traveled around Greece and the Greek islands, visiting the oracles of the gods. For some years he lived on Crete and at Sparta. Eventually he returned to Samos and established a school of philosophy. In later centuries this was known as the Semicircle of Pythagoras, and became the political forum of Samos. Presumably Pythagoras had learned greater depth and variety of teachings on Crete and at Sparta. His return to his native island was successful. So much so, that his countrymen demanded that he spend all his time on political matters and the administration of public affairs. Pythagoras took to living in a cave outside the main city, but found that he could not avoid public intrusions into his meditative life. He gathered his most loyal followers and departed for Italy.
At Croton, in Italy, he attracted six hundred disciples to his way of philosophical living, which consisted chiefly of avoiding meat and wine, moderation in all physical activity, and a tranquil and balanced habit of thought. His more serious followers were known as Cenobites (dwellers-in-common), or Students (Greek: mathematikoi). They gave up all their worldly possessions to a small group of administrators and shared everything equally. Since most of them were wealthy, and their assets were well looked after, this was not so much of a sacrifice as might first appear. The Cenobites were active philosophers -- they taught the wisdom and lifestyle of Pythagoras.
There was a more numerous class of students known as the Hearers (Greek: akousmathikoi). As the name implies, these were men who came with their wives and children to listen to Pythagoras speak. Many were men of wealth, social position, and power. According to Nicomachus, two thousand of these auditors gathered to listen to a single speech upon the arrival of Pythagoras in Italy, drawn to him by his reputation. The Hearers became for Pythagoras a sort of philosophical army. Through their efforts he was able to liberate many Italian and Sicilian cities that had, until then, remained under the yolk of local tyrants.
Iamblichus defines the difference between the Hearers and the Students as one of interaction. The Hearers received the rules set down by Pythagoras for a good and proper life, and then lived them to the best of their abilities. By contrast, the Students thought about the Pythagorean teachings and debated their merits amongst themselves, and with Pythagoras during his lifetime. They did not simply accept the teachings of their master, but strove to fully understand them. Pythagoras himself did not deal directly with the Hearers, but had one of his close disciples handle their instruction, respond to their questions and deal with any personal problems that might arise in connection with the Pythagorean way of life.
One of the most important of the teachings of Pythagoras was that of reincarnation. He claimed to remember his previous lives on the earth, and taught that all men and women live numerous times, during which their souls acquire experience. In one of his past lives, he believed he had been Euphorbus, son of Panthus, the conqueror of Patroclus, who is mentioned by Homer in the seventeenth book of the Illiad. Pythagoras also asserted that he could perceive who his disciples had been during their former incarnations, and moreover could cause his disciples to remember their own past lives. This must have been a popular feature of his teachings, as illustrated by the numerous persons in modern times who go to great lengths to seek out those who claim to be able to help them learn about their past identities.
The belief in transmigration of souls was held by the worshippers of the god Orpheus. At the time of Pythagoras, Orphism taught that the soul was a divine spark bound to the flesh as though to a sepulcher. While incarnated, most human souls were unable to remember their higher spiritual nature. They toiled through a painful, harsh circle of successive reincarnations until at last released by specific Orphic Mystery rituals.
It seems likely that the Mysteries of Orpheus were the main source for the reincarnation beliefs of Pythagoras, although he may have found support for them among the more esoteric teachings of the Egyptians and Persians.
Another unusual aspect of Pythagorean teaching was the use of music to heal both the mind and body. He employed specific modes of music for specific illnesses and disorders. This musical therapy was not only applied at times of distress, but daily administered to his followers to assist their spiritual development. The importance of music in Pythagorean teaching may also owe something to the Mystery tradition of Orpheus.
Pythagoreans were forbidden entirely to eat "animal food" and drank wine only in moderation -- higher disciples did not drink wine at all. They were taught to struggle against their natural animal inclinations -- for example, if a disciple was avaricious, he was forced to sacrifice the possession he prized the most; if he was timid, he was made to confront his fear; if he was lazy, he was forced to work at some task he detested. In general Pythagoreans denied their bodies by eating very little, sleeping only a few hours a night, and performing physical labor. They maintained frequent periods of silence, and during the day struggled with the most difficult problems of mathematics in their heads while going about their ordinary tasks. All this was designed to instill a rigid -- one might say an almost superhuman -- discipline.
Pythagoras was quite strict about who he permitted to become his nearest disciples. During his later years, when he maintained his school at Croton, those who came to listen to him speak publicly were not permitted to actually see him -- he lectured from behind a veil or curtain. If they gave indication that they wished to become a part of his school, he first inquired about their beliefs and behavior, then placed them under study for a period of three years while pretending to ignore them completely.
Upon those who did not give up in despair, he imposed a five-year period of silence during which they were not permitted to speak. During this period, all of their property and money was taken over by a group of men known as Economizers. It formed a part of the communal wealth of the Pythagoreans. The Probationers judged worthy at the end of five years of silence became Esoterics. They were allowed to sit on the other side of the curtain when Pythagoras lectured, and to see his face. However, if they were rejected, they were given twice as much wealth as they had initially brought with them to the community, sent away, and treated as though they were dead. Any Pythagorean who happened to meet such a rejected Probationer behaved toward the unfortunate man as though he did not exist, refusing to speak to him or even to acknowledge his existence.
The disciples of Pythagoras rose at dawn, put on a simple white garment of linen, and took a solitary walk in some quiet place such as a temple or sacred grove to collect their thoughts. Later in the morning they gathered in temples and discussed the rules of conduct they were determined to maintain, presumably speaking of their personal difficulties and failings in a sort of group confession. They then turned their attention to physical exercises, such as running, jumping and weight-lifting. There may have existed a kind of Pythagorean yoga (the language of Iamblichus suggests as much -- he mentions exercises consisting of "oratorical gesticulations"), but if so it has not been clearly described.
At noon they ate a lunch of bread and honey, or bread and raw honeycomb, but did not drink wine. Directly after lunch, they held receptions for strangers and guests, presumably to give them information about the Pythagorean way of life, and about how to become a Pythagorean. The early afternoon was spent in walks during which groups composed of no more than two or three disciples talked about and debated philosophical matters -- larger groups were avoided.
After the group walk they went to a bath house for a bath and massage, then gathered in small communal dining halls that seated no more than ten persons. Libations and sacrifices were performed with fuming incense, and a light supper consisting mainly of raw and boiled vegetables, fruits, bread and wine was consumed. This supper concluded before sunset. More libations followed, and the younger members of the group read aloud whatever passages from philosophical texts the older members instructed them to read. The eldest member of the group spoke a number of Pythagorean precepts for the benefit of the younger members, in order to keep these rules fresh in their minds. All retired to their homes and went to sleep on clean, white beds with coverlets of white linen.
The disciples of Pythagoras began to acquire the same sort of communal wealth and power enjoyed in a later century by the Knights Templar. They were the de facto leaders and legislators of the ancient world. Whenever a town had a problem, it looked to the nearest Pythagorean for a solution because of the special understanding Pythagoreans had concerning the wishes and actions of the gods, and because of their recognized wisdom; whenever there was a dispute, a Pythagorean was chosen to mediate because of their reputation for honesty and incorruptibility. Not surprisingly, Pythagoreans also engendered the same degree of envy and hatred that would later be directed against the Templars.
Iamblichus refers to the account of the writer Apollonius, who asserted that men had always been envious of Pythagoras for his gift, but that when he was a youth, they forgave him because of his easy, face-to-face style of social interaction. Later, when Pythagoras began to speak from behind a curtain, and to allow some of his followers to see him, while refusing the sight of his face to others, hatred was ignited against him.
The spark was a man named Cylon of Croton, who wanted the prestige that came from being a Pythagorean, but did not wish to actually be put to the trouble of following the rules of the Pythagorean way of life. When he was rejected admission to the order, he set about doing all in his power to destroy it. Since he was one of the richest and most powerful men in Croton, his anger had fatal consequences. Pythagoras, who was very advanced in age when this enmity arose, was forced to move to Metapontum for his own safety. There he died.
Left without their leader, the closest followers of Pythagoras met together at the house of a disciple named Milo to decide how to deal with the threat posed by the Cylonians, as the henchmen of Cylon came to be called. Cylon seized this opportunity, ordered the doors sealed shut, and had the house burned to the ground. Only two of the original Students of Pythagoras escaped the inferno, Archippus and Lysis. They fled the area, and eventually went on to spread the teachings of "that man" as Pythagoras was always called by his followers after his death.
There are other versions as to how the Pythagoreans fell from their position of social power, but it is impossible to be certain which of these, if any, is the truth. We can only be fairly confident that the insularity of the order, coupled with the favoritism shown by Pythagoras toward some of his disciples to the exclusion of the greater number, generated a smoldering hatred among powerful men in Croton that eventually erupted in some form of violent confrontation.
Pythagoreanism lived on in the examples and teachings of the many Hearers of "the divine" as he was known by his followers during his lifetime. It was perhaps due to the teachings of this group that the legend grew that Pythagoras had been, not only godlike in nature, but actually a living god. This myth was already well-advanced during his life, and after his death became accepted fact among the majority of the population of the ancient world.
He was said to have been able to predict earthquakes and tempests, to understand the language of beasts and birds, to have been seen in two places at the same time and to be able to fly through the air in a way similar to that of Abaris the Hyperborean. He was credited with a host of firsts -- the discovery of the higher solid bodies such as the dodecahedron, the invention of the geometric relationship between the area of squares adjacent to a right triangle's sides and its diagonal (Pythagorean theorem), the discovery of the musical intervals. His voice was said to possess a hypnotic power that could modify the emotions and even the physical health of those who heard it.
It may be that Pythagoras did not originate any of the things he is credited with, but merely learned of them on his travels during the course of his studies, and later taught them to his disciples. Even if so, he was a remarkable leader and original thinker who impressed those near to him so powerfully that they declared him a god. Much of his knowledge undoubtedly consisted of what we would today categorize as magic -- the natural magic of stones and herbs, the mathematical magic of numbers, and the sacred magic of spirits and deities.
One of the things the Greeks found so difficult at first about his teaching was his use of numbers to represent abstract spiritual principles. One was not merely a single object or thing, but was the Monad, the First Cause, the reason that underlies unity and identity. Two was not merely two objects, but was the Dyad, the underlying principle of division, conflict, diversity and inequality. The rejection of his teachings upon his initial return to Samos from Babylon suggests that this symbolic way of thinking was virtually unknown to the Greeks before Pythagoras. It is second nature to many persons in the modern West today, but at the time of Pythagoras it was revolutionary, at least in Mediterranean.
Pythagoras left no book. His legacy is a way of thinking and a way of living designed to elevate the human soul from its torpor of despair and to hold up a mirror that reveals to every person his or her own divine splendor.